Bob chuck close

Bob is a piece of artwork created by chuck close in 1970 in the united states. A synthetic polymer white and black painting on canvas. Let is one of the one of series of eight large black and white portraits that Close painted between 1967 and 1970. THe subject if this painting is Robert Israel one of the CLose's friend, a new York based opera designer Chuck Close uses a girding technique . THe effect of this technique Is that the artwork almost looks exactly as the original. He took a photo of Robert and then grid the Image to then copy on the canvas. He uses black planting applied with an allures to lulled up dark tones.The airbrushing helped to blend two or more colors on the planting In a seamless way. IT makes softly define edge colors I will be using the formal analytical frame work to analyze the artwork â€Å"Bob† by Chuck Close created In 1970. I will be analyzing the artwork using the elements and principles of design, looking at the techniques he has used to create the artwork, exploring what type of style he has used and any metaphors and symbols he may have used in his artwork. The elements and principles have been applied to this artwork by using elements ND principles like tone, emphasis, contrast, form, texture and focal point.Close uses tone to create a dark shade in his artwork, this helps make the artwork seem more realistic. Contrast is a large part of this artwork; it shows the realism in the artwork by having the black on white in different parts of the artwork. The texture of the artwork seems smooth; we can easily see the smoothness of the skin because of the tone and emphasis of the lines in the artwork. The focal point of the image is around his eyes and glasses. The technique that Close uses is a girding technique. The wayClose goes about with his technique is that he will find a photo that he has taken and then will grid the image and then transfer that over to another piece of paper or whatever he chooses to work on. The effe ct of this technique is that the artwork almost looks exactly the same as the original photo. The artist was trying to portray a general image of himself. The processes the artist has used to create the artwork are using a camera to capture the image he wants to draw and then grinding the image to blow it up and draw it. The Influence of Close's work is to make photo realistic artworks.The artwork Is realistic. What the artist has done with his technique Is that he has taken photography to the next step by actually drawing the Image In an exact copy of what he had with the image. The artist hasn't used any symbols or metaphors In this Image, the only symbol that I could figure that would be classed as a symbol would be the fact that the artwork Is photo realistic. In the artwork â€Å"Bob† by Chuck Close, we see a range of elements and principles of art, such as tone, emphasis and texture. Due to his grinding technique, It has allowed him to make his artwork to seem realistic .HIS style of photo realism allows him to use the elements and principles to create this type of artwork. Bob chuck close By karakas Chuck Close uses a girding technique . THe effect of this technique is that the artwork image to then copy on the canvas. He uses black painting applied with an airbus to build up dark tones. The airbrushing helped to blend two or more colors on the painting in a seamless way. IT makes softly define edge colors I will be using the formal analytical frame work to analyze the artwork â€Å"Bob† by Chuck Close created in The influence of Close's work is to make photo realistic artworks.

A notion of liberty has been thoroughly

Through all the history of the humankind a notion of liberty has been thoroughly researched by the philosophers, politicians and economists. It was often proclaimed to be the most valuable thing a person can possess, but sometimes it was pronounced the greatest enemy of social and political stability. Till nowadays the dwellers of our planet can not agree on the same handling of this notion. It’s impossible to solve this problem in a short essay, so it should be seen as an attempt to compare different views on this notion.The editors of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary of Law (1996) explain freedom as an â€Å"enjoyment of the rights enjoyed by others in a society free of arbitrary or unreasonable limitation or interference†. The authors of the WordNet 2.0 presume that liberty is â€Å"personal freedom from servitude or confinement or oppression†. As we can note, the word liberty has different meanings by itself, and driven through the alembic of fancy of everyone who’s interested in the question multiplies the amount of explanations for the notion many times. This is the fact that often causes incomprehension and misunderstandings during discussing it.Liberty has always been highly appreciated by the creative people, such as writers, poets, painters and sculptors etc. For most of them it is an essential condition for the effective work and for the peace of spirit and mind. David Hume notes, that â€Å"†¦the arts and sciences could never flourish, but in a free government†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (1752) and many of the arist will completely agree with him, as freedom of thoughts and deeds is one of the most important things for them. It’s apparent that an artist cannot create anything of real value when his mind is shackled and when he is told what to do, think or dream about. The deprivation of liberty is often murderous for a creative person.But artists are not the only ones in need of freedom. Ordinary humans, the citizens of thei r countries also value the liberty highly. John J. Lalor says that it doesn’t take much effort to keep liberty within the bounds with the help of the self-respect, welfare and morality, even when it’s not limited legally. That sounds coherent, as the fact is known that the revolutions do not happen in societies where all of their members possess everything essential. People who have things they value do not rebel against the existing regime. The other way round, those who do not have anything to lose, are always ready to battle. This is the main reason for the dictatorial policy of the poor countries’ leaders.As you can see liberty is one of the vital things the government has to provide to its nation. But considering it, a dilemma appears, a question which was formulated by John Stuart Mill: â€Å"Ought we therefore to lay on no taxes, and, under whatever provocation, make no wars?†(1869). Sure enough it is problematic for the government and folk to reac h consensus on where the personal liberty has to give place to the civil duty. The cabinet gives people a right to choose their life-style, education and profession, but at the same time it makes them pay taxes, acquire some compulsory educational level, get the license for driving a car, and when the war comes all the men must go to protect their country from the invasion and occupation.As it was previously noted, not all the people agree on the meaning of the word liberty. Most think it is the right to do the things you want to do unless it doesn’t pinch the rights of the others. But some individuals presume that the liberty they possess gives them the right to do anything they desire, regardless of what other people think of their actions. Murray N. Rothbard asks: â€Å"What, for example, of â€Å"incitement to riot,† in which the speaker is held guilty of a crime for whipping up a mob, which then riots and commits various actions and crimes against person and prop erty?† Politicians, sociologists and social psychologist are still in search of an answer.It has always been a problem when the state is unable to provide its dweller with liberties declared. It often happens that if the person is not the member of the prevailing social, cultural or ethnical group his rights are strictly limited in spite of the existing laws designed to protect them. Bruce Smith in 1887 was sure that the effective majority had the right to do what it wanted to, and it was impossible for the individual to oppress its actions. More than hundred years passed but, ruefully, the situation hasn’t changed a lot.Liberty is not the stable thing that is presented you when you’re born and stays yours to the grave. You have to daily prove you’re worthy to possess it. At this point I agree totally with Bruce Smith who said: †Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ principle of individual freedom—which†¦ fired the most noble-minded of our ancestors to rebel against t he tyranny of those who won, or inherited, the rights of that conquest—is in imminent danger of being lost to us, at the very hour of its consummation.†Different people value liberty for various reasons. For some of them it’s a warranty that their kids won’t be forced to vote for the person they despise, or pray the gods they do not worship. Some see their liberty in a right to kill and be killed, some want to born as much children as they can handle. It depends on the person really. Anthony Lee Gregory, the American journalist and writer says that liberty is the right to carry any weapon of your choice. You can choose between living your life for yourself and devoting it to the other people’s benefit, between bringing love or hatred to the world around you. So, it’s your turn to choose how to use the liberty you possess.Works citedMackay, Thomas, ed. various authors. (1891). Plea for Liberty: An Argument Against Socialism and Socialistic Leg islation, ch2, 6, New York: D. Appleton and Company Smith, Bruce. (1887).   Liberty and Liberalism: A Protest Against the Growing Tendency toward Undue Interference by the State, with Individual Liberty, Private Enterprise and the Rights of Property, 14, London: Longmans, Green, and Co. Hume, David. (1987). Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary, Part 1, Essay 12, Of Civil Liberty, n.dLalor, John J. (1899). Cyclopedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and the Political History of the United States by the Best American and European Writers, License and Liberty, v.2, p. 266,   New York: Maynard, Merrill, and Co. John Stuart Mill. (1965). On Liberty, ch.2, p.43, London: Longman, Roberts & Green Murray N. Rothbard. (1978). For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, ch.6, p.63, Collier Books, New York Merriam-Webster Dictionary of Law (1996), Freedom, Retrieved October 29, 2004 from the World Wide Web: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/freedom WordNet 2.0. (2003), Retrieved October 29, 2004 from the World Wide Web:   http://www.dictionary.com/browse/liberty Anthony Lee Gregory. (2002). What is liberty?, October 29, 2004 from the World Wide Web:   http://www.anthonygregory.com/whatisliberty.html

Plymouth Plantation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Plymouth Plantation - Essay Example The book describes the first Thanksgiving and about the brave pilgrims who were in search of religious liberty. The description of Mayflower is a new kind of telling a story that goes up through King Philip's War in 1675-76. The bloody war was fought between the English and the Native Americans that resulted in the death of hundreds of English and thousands of Native Americans. The Native Americans were the Indians and most of them were killed and the remaining were starved to death or deported or sold as slaves. After the war independence of native New England was broken. The next 250 years was repetition of the history between the English (white Americans too) and the Native Americans. The Indians weren't in a mood to accept the new visitors or the white Americans. As the number of white settlements increased the insecurity among the Indians also increased. Each day passing the whites were moving closer to the natives and were more powerful than the Indians. The whites were growing in number and stature. Since the two sides need different things and respect different values, grievances build up. They weren't in a mood to understand each other and stopped trying to understand each other's values, the result was bloodshed and finally the Indians lose. The Indians were illiterates and didn't make any effort to write their side of story and their own history. The Thanksgiving Day was declared a national holiday by the then president Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln describes the Pilgrims as national heroes who remind the Americans of their roots. Squanto was the Pilgrim's trusty English speaking interpreter; to take Massasoit's place he made every effort to turn the English against him. The result was a bloody preemptive attack on a Massachusetts band that was led by Miles Standish and was sanctioned by William Bradford. The raiders came back with the head of a warrior as a trophy to commemorate their victory and hanged it over the fort. This resulted in a shocking wave of fear amongst the natives that made them to flee their fields and villages. When the Rev John Robinson, Pilgrim's spiritual leader came to about the raid he condemned this kind of shocking and terrorized act and denounced it in a letter to William Bradford. The naives of different tribal groups and always had complexities amongst them. They were the Pokanokets, the Nausets of Cape Cod, the Rhode Island Narragansetts, the Massachusetts near Boston and several others. These tribal groups were collectively called as Wamponoags. The English and the Wamponoags were complicated in terms of psychologically and morally and were always under various pressures. The Pilgrim village museum in Plymouth contains description and artifacts of both cultures and represents as bicultural institution. It not only represents or tells the stories of European immigration but also the encounter between them that happened centuries ago. Mostly the Whites described the Mayflower by their writings and scriptures though both cultures were involved in the arrival of the Mayflower. Since the natives were not literate as the Whites they fell behind and little was known from them. Both the cultures have equal importance and played significant role in the evolving American history. They made us to realize the importance of both the cultures and to respect them. The Indians passed

Film review Movie Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Film - Movie Review Example The success of communication and portrayal of the community in a film relies on the directors employment of such elements as light, characterization, visual contents and camera movements among others as the below review of the Punishment park reveals. As stated earlier, pseudo-documentaries are dramatized realities. The director recruits the actors to play specific roles in the film, the plot of such dramatization are always actual events that the producers would wish to communicate to their audience but cannot use the actual victims. While the directors may manipulate the plot to enhance the films relevance among the audience group, they maintain the essence of the film to the actual events they wish to portray. The same is the case in the Punishment Park as the director portrays actual events that transpired during the Vietnam War. The films capture the most traumatizing and inhumane of treatment of people within America, the leading democracy. Additionally, the film portrays abjec t neglect of human rights during the time as President Nixon orders the detainment of people perceived to be enemies of the state. Such a blanket definition of the enemy leave the population vulnerable as anybody without effective identification documents qualifies as an enemy. To enhance the communication of the graphic nature of the film, the director employs visual content strategically thus achieving relevance and effectiveness of communication. Among the elements that the director employ include characterization, the film stars Patrick Boland acting alongside other established actors at the time. The selection of the talents contributes to the success of the film, which relies on the effectiveness of each cast. The cast in the movie fit their roles perfectly thus portrays the essential features the director hoped for in the idea. The relevant cast influences the cast as they depict the inhumane nature of the government’s policy during the Vietnam War. Through the cast, t he film depict both intriguing and disturbing features in President Nixon’s secret operation in Cambodia in a bid to counter the growing antiwar movements. Among the most intriguing features of the film is its portrayal of the desert. The director employs numerous features of film production to ensure that he develops realistic scenery representing the desert. The expansive sand and the enduring setting thus come naturally. Setting is an important aspect of a film that the director achieves by shooting the film in El Mirage Dry Lake in California. An effective setting is important in film that is a pseudo-documentary. In such films, the audience demands an actual or near actual representation of the historical events. The setting thus becomes important since the audience would demand some similarity of the setting to the exact location of the historical occurrences. The most disturbing feature of the film is the maltreatment of the minority group by the government officers. T he setting is harsh as the heat becomes unbearable, they lack basic needs such as food and water but must run for their lives in the expansive sand and soaring heat of the desert. It becomes ironical that the government of the United States a country considered the most civilized and with vibrant civil right groups would permit such inhumane treatments of people without

Writing Business Letters 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Writing Business Letters 1 - Essay Example Though the situation posed an ethical dilemma to the judges and might have been viewed as a set of a wrong precedent, the judge decision was appropriate and mandated by the circumstances. Moreover, ones right should not be infringed to protect another as in the case of Jodie right. The ruling by the judge to defend the right of life of Jodie is ethical even though it caused termination to the life of Mary. The decision of the judge had no violation to the law because even without conducting the surgery, Mary would still not survive (The Guardian, n.d). The attorney General conclusion to protect the judges from conviction and criticism further considered the need to remain objective while making the rulings. Mary would still die even without having the surgery and thus decision to protect Jodie right is prudent. Finally, protection of the weaker should not be taken to authorize the violation of the dominant one. Though the submissions of the catholic church, pro-life and the parents had some essence, the judges went ahead to reaffirm to them that the decision does not make killing lawful and gave a comprehensive explanation to their decision (The Guardian, n.d). By so doing, the judges acted ethically and made their ultimate decision without completely disregarding the voices of all the parties. The opponents of the decision should therefore remain open minded and be cognizant of the unique circumstances. The judge’s decision is therefore supported and all parties should appreciate the ruling that saved a life. " A right to life, but not to stay alive | UK news | The Guardian ." Latest US news, world news, sport and comment from the Guardian | guardiannews.com | The Guardian . N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr. 2012.

What is the current status of clinical gene therapy trials for Chronic Essay

What is the current status of clinical gene therapy trials for Chronic Granulomatous Disorder - Essay Example ests that the disease is present in ‘one in 250,000’ infants at birth, but the symptoms become evident only when the child reaches a few months of age (Assari 2006: 6). Only 21% of patients have survived the disease beyond the age of 7 previously, whereas the recent trends show improvement in the survival rates because of the ‘advancement in treatments’ (Assari 2006: 6). On the other hand, the disease can rarely occur in adults, and therefore, if someone has the problem of ‘recurrent infections’, it will be advisable to subject such individuals to an evaluation, irrespective of the age factor (Chung, Cyr & Ellis 2013: 2). Gene therapy, which is the intervention in a disease or disorder through introducing genes into the affected cells to set right the impacts of ‘specific gene mutations’, is one of the methods used in the treatment of CGD (Dugal & Chaudhary 2012: 4). However, evidence suggests that in order for the treatment to be effective, the appropriate gene will have to be incorporated into the target cell ‘specifically, efficiently and stably’ (Dugal & Chaudhary 2012: 4). On the other hand, it is also necessary to use the most appropriate vector for the introduction of the gene or gene delivery into the human cell. Research studies have identified lentiviral vectors (LVs) to be one of the effective and the ‘most widely used’ vectors in gene therapy (Dugal & Chaudhary 2012: 4). A study conducted by Assari (2006: 6) on mice found that gene therapy, using recombinant retroviral vectors, is an effective treatment for the reconstruction of normal neutrophils an d in building ‘resistance to pathogens’ such as Aspergillus. The author also contends that gene therapy, using retroviral vectors in two humans, has produced ‘encouraging results’ where both of them have attained remarkable levels of gene corrected cells and their clinical conditions show good improvement (Assari 2006: 6). Studies further substantiate the fact that gene

Post-Coloniale Theory_Gender Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Post-Coloniale Theory_Gender - Essay Example This is not to say that he did not suffer the suppression of body, mind and spirit under alien masters or being an alien in his own country, as did millions of others before him. To imitate a popular statement: You can take colonialism out of a colony but you can not take a colony (of people) out of colonialism! Fanon was born in the French colony of Martinique, French Antilles in the Caribbean. Creole is the language of this colony and black, the colour of his skin. Under the French administration, Martinicians were born and brought up as Frenchmen or Frenchwomen. This superimposition of a European culture on an African community in the Caribbean islands formed the background to the evolution of Fanon’s thinking and writings1. Formally trained as a psychiatrist and a philosopher, he was an original thinker, Marxist revolutionary and writer on suppressive aspects of colonialism and propounded his views in his seminal works, most important of which are â€Å"Black Skin, White Masks† (1952) and â€Å"The Wretched of the Earth† (1961). Through these writings and other works, Fanon has helped us understand colonialism as more than the exercise of political and economic power, but as a psychological process. We shall analyse this argument in the light of his cultural moorings, his works and his revolutionary interpretations. The word colonialism has its origins in the mid-14th century Roman word ‘colonye’, a settlement, an outpost or occupied lands outside the Roman city states.2 ‘Colonialism’ is a 19th century concept of social, political and economic policy towards ‘occupied lands’ under the British imperialism. During the 15th and 16th centuries, European nations experienced renaissance of art, literature, music and drama even as Christianity and the church confronted the State to capture and control the minds of the people. The sea-faring

Managing People and Change Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Managing People and Change - Case Study Example These reforms included having a financial budgeting that was strict. The job specifications were revised. Fund holding was also reintroduced by the Blair government. The Blair government emphasized outsourcing of medical services. (Rudolf, 2006) Research shows that the medical staff are demoralised since the Blair government came to power. This is because of the NHS redundancies and staff cuts. The NHS has encountered problems since the initiation of the Blair reforms. This is in relation to IT innovations and incorporation into the organization. The National Programme for IT was though to be the worlds largest. This project had conflicts with programme contractors and the Blair government. The estimated budgets for this program kept on rising from 2.3 billion to 30 billion. (David, 1989) The National Health Service Act was passed in the year 1946. It was implemented in the year 1948. Nigel Lawson described it as a national religion. The services in the NHS are free of charge. After the World War II there were great reforms which were initiated by William Beveridge. Large sums of money were used by the NHS in funding. During the 1980s there was the reformation of the management processes in NHS. This organization had tough strains in financing until the year 1987. During this year the government provided 101 million for use in NHS. There are various NHS agencies such as NICE and SIGN. (Allyson, 2004) Improvement agencies role in health sector used to implement changes in NHS The role of the modernization agencies is to give assistance to the local clinicians. They help in the redesigning of the local services in the health sector. They ensure that the health sector provides services that are patient oriented. They also provide clinical governance services to the health sector. Modernization agencies help in leadership development in the health sector. They ensure that there is the improvement of the services that are given to patients and other customers in the health. There is provision of a regulatory oversight that is independent. (DoH, 1997) Improvement agencies have helped in implementing various changes in the NHS. These include ensuring that the length of waiting time for the patients is greatly reduced through variations in the discharging of the patients. The admission process of the patients is also changed. The patients follow up has been changed such that it is only done when necessary. There is the reduction of the queue numbers such that patient access to the services is greatly improved. (DoH, 1999) Care & Repair England This health improvement agency established with an objective of meeting the health needs of older and disabled citizens. Its roles are; to act as agents of service users in the health sector. It also provides the necessary policy framework for the other agencies within the mandate offered by the department of health. (Rampton, 2003) Organisational change models used by improvement organizations NIATx process improvement model This process model is based on some key principles which entail; involving and understanding the customer, fixing key challenges for the chief executives, picking powerful change leaders, adopting rapid-cycle testing procedures and obtaining ideas from partners outside the organizational field. (Burnes, 2004) Penn State improvement model

A written reprimand on a manager that does not have managerial skills Essay

A written reprimand on a manager that does not have managerial skills with her employees. and has no commucation skills, and a drinking problem - Essay Example The firm considers this issue a health problem and we are offering to help you pay for a rehabilitation program with normal salary and benefits until completion of the program. â€Å"Since alcohol affects many organs in the body, long term excessive drinking puts a problem drinker at risks for developing serious health problems† (Alcoholics-info). There are other issues not concerned with health and image that are affecting your performance as a manager. Your past employee evaluation revealed that you lack a lot of important managerial skills to do your job well. Some important managerial skills include observation, monitor employee performance, analytical abilities, good decision making, technical report writing skills, the ability to conduct research, and communication skills. (White, 2011). The written reports you have submitted to the company serve as empirical evidence of your inability to write using proper grammar and spelling. A manager is expected to have excellent written communication skills. We strongly encourage that you enroll in a technical report writing course as soon as possible to fix this problem. Another skill deficiency we have identified is your poor research skills. A recent report you submitted did not include any references to support your claims. You must remember that research takes time and you must read first lots of newspapers, journal articles, and databases as part of the research process. A third de ficiency that concerned the company that is imperative for you to perform your job well is your verbal communication ability. Effective communication occurs when the intended meaning equals the perceive meaning (Schermerhorn & Hunt & Osborn, 2003, pg. 339). The company has received multiple complaints from employees concerning your communication abilities. Several employees claim that you never listen to them and you make decisions without considering their input. As a manager

Financial Reporting Problem Essay Example for Free

Financial Reporting Problem Essay Abstract In this paper we will discuss Walmart’s Balance sheet and Income Statement. We will analyze the company’s total assets at the end of the most recent annual reporting year and to why it is important. We then will talk about the company’s total assets, how much cash and cash equivalents did the company have, as well as, the amount of accounts payable at the most recent year, and from the previous year. What the company’s net revenues are from the last three annual reporting periods, the change in dollars in the company’s net income from the most recent annual reporting period to the previous annual reporting period. We will talk about the company’s total assets at the end of the most recent year and the previous year from the annual reporting period. Lastly, we will discuss as to what information that has been obtained within this paper that would be important to a potential investor, employee and so forth. Financial Reporting Problem, Part 1 Total Assets The total assets for Wal-Mart as of January 31, 2013 were $203,105,000. The reason this is important for a company or business to know, is so the business can have a better understanding of how much the company is worth. Knowing how much a company is worth is beneficial because the assets can be used as collateral for a loan. Also knowing the assets and comparing total assets to previous years can show if a company is growing and expanding or shrinking. For Wal-Mart, the comparison from the previous year shows that the total assets increased. As of January 31, 2012 the company showed total assets of $193,406,000. With the comparison from January 31, 2012 to the current figure from January 31, 2013 Wal-Mart grew and/or expanded in total assets by 9,699,000. Cash and Cash Equivalent The total cash and cash equivalent for the end of the year for Wal-Mart as of January 31, 2013 is 7,781,000. Knowing the total cash and cash equivalent will help the company to know how much the company has to spend. No organization has the intention of spending more money then what the company has available. If a company has very low cash or cash equivalent then the company will need to consider if a loan is needed. In consideration for a loan total expenses needs to be considered. If a company like Wal-Mart has enough cash to pay all expenses then a loan isnt needed, but if the expense exceeds the cash then a loan is needed. Also another factor to consider on getting a loan is if the money coming into the company will be enough to pay the loan back. Accounts Payable The accounts payable for the end of the most recent annual reporting period that ended January 31, 2013 is 1,061,000. Knowing the accounts payable helps a company to know one of the companies expenses. This is important because if the companies accounts payable are higher than the money coming in, that could be a problem for the business. Comparing to previous years accounts payable can show many different problems or benefits for the business. Net Revenues Walmart Inc. net revenues from the last three annual reporting periods are as follows; On January 31st, 2011 in the amount of $421,849,000. On January 31st, 2012 the net revenues were; $446,950,000 and on January 31st, 2013 it totaled to the amount of $469,162,000. From looking at the reports Walmart Inc. has had an increased from 2011 to 2012 in the amount of $25,101,000 and from 2012 to 2013 has increased to $22,212,000. Net Revenue helps account for certain price reductions, adjustments and refunds. This is necessary to get the general measure of the real top line rather than the bottom line. Net Income Looking at Walmart’s income statement from the net income of 2013 on January 31st it totaled in $16,999,000. The change from 2012 and 2013 is a increase in $1,300,000. The net income from 2012 is $15,699,000. From looking at the statement and seeing that there is a loss due to nonredeemable and redeemable non-controlling interest the company has lost net income by 16,998,000 within 2013 but in 2012 only had a 609,000 difference, and in 2011 had a 1,289,000 difference from 2013. When it comes to Net Income it is closely followed and play a huge role in ratio analysis. Shareholders take a close look at the net income due to their compensation of the company. If a business is not generating enough profit, the values of shares fall. It is important to know that net income does not measure to how much cash a company has earned during a given period. Change in Dollars of Net Income The change in dollars of Walmart’s net income from 2013 is 16,999,000 and from 2012 it is only a million dollar difference of 15,999,000. Total Assets in Recent Year from Annual Reporting Wal-Mart has reported its accounting period for fiscal year 2013; accounting period ends on January 31st of each year. Wal-Mart’s current total of assets as of fiscal year 2013 is $203,105,000.00. Wal-Mart continues to grow in consecutive years with an average increase in assets of $10,000,000 dollars a year for the past five years. The earnings per share have increased 10.6 percent increasing their shares to $5.02. The company has made earnings in addition of $22 billion make it a $ 466 billion dollar corporation. It is with no doubt that the success of the corporation continues on the rise. The corporation owns 4,000 locations in the United States alone adding $10 billion alone in net sales. Further from generating income and investing in growth and assets Wal-Mart has always researched and invested in ways to reduce expenses and operating costs. Strategies such as training front line and middle managers in operating cost reductions and implementing sales and inventory syste ms have greatly reduced operating costs in the current successful years. Total Assets from Previous Annual Report In fiscal year 2012, Wal-Mart had a total of earning of $15.8 billion  with a closing total of net sales of $443.9 billion. Since 1992 Wal-Mart has made and increased a total net worth of sales of $400 billion dollars. The corporation strategy for 2012 was to continue to invest in growth and re-enforce in what separates them from their competitors, their low incomparable low merchandise prices. A very unique idea that required greater investments and growth was that of creating a merchandise corporation to the public that provided a one stop be all shopping store. The corporation concentrated in providing its customers a broad assortment of merchandise which provided customers in a sense a time saving tool in a high tempo life style generation. Wal-Mart’s obvious and epic success of how effective and efficient their corporation strategies are. In addition Wal-Mart continues to re-invest in its online market and expanding its online strategy. Important Information Wal-Mart received a total of $332 million in common stock in the year of 2013 alone. In 2012 Wal-Mart returned dividends to its investors worth $60 billion in shares. A high number of their investors are Wal-Mart associates averaging an increased percentage of stocks by the yearly. A yearly accounting period of accounting provides the corporation’s accounting state which in return provides transparency to its current investors and a corporate overview of potential new investors. Internally Wal-Mart benefits from these reports in projecting new investments. Strategic Management can influence how much can be reinvested while at the same time have oversight of how expenses, employee and associate management, and operating costs have to be considered before any over spending incurs. Overall an accounting report is essentially the backbone of a corporation. The accounting structure requires having a solid foundation in a corporation in order to have a successful business. Accountin g is the measurement of how much a business fails or it is successful. References http://c46b2bcc0db5865f5a76-91c2ff8eba65983a1c33d367b8503d02.r78.cf2.rackcdn.com/88/2d/4fdf67184a359fdef07b1c3f4732/2013-annual-report-for-walmart-stores-inc_130221024708579502.pdf

Business background and overview of Nestle

Business background and overview of Nestle The Nestle is almost 140 years old company providing the vast variety of the products across the world. The company as it is very old and senior in its category have its roots in almost every country across the world. Nestle is very famous nutrition and food products company it is very vast as far as their products are concerned. In UK is also have a very much reputation and reorganization of its brands are good enough. The employment in the UK of Nestle company is almost 7,000 at the various sites across the country. The Nestle has almost 6,000 different brands which are across the globe showing the reputation and appreciation of its products and brands worldwide. The quality of the product is the symbol of the organizations commitment to build a product with care and dedication. It is a universal fact that it is the quality which retains a company in the market. Nestle always kept in mind this principle because it knows very well that customers have no tolerance for the quality of product. Nestle efforts are to maintain highly customer satisfaction products. The Company implements a system approach that insure products of highly quality. It time to time integrated its system of manufacturing producing quality products. In its research system that data is entered by the researches to visualize the quality of product. Previous researches conducted by the company shows that when quality is produced with fixed cost, a high quality form like Nestle can undercut its rivals pricess and may find it profitable to invest more on quality according to market size. This is the reason that Nestle has been remained concentrated despite market growth. In the recent years Nestle products which are produced with fixed cost, the average quality of produces increases with marke t size and the market does not fragment as it grows large. In the global markets only those products are survived which are batter in quality and in competitive pricess. The Nestle always keeps in view that market trends and international quality standards are maintained. Nestle receives a great response from the investors because of its highly reputed products and quality management. As a result of its highly fame products its market size increased manifold. Its relationship strengthens between product quality and market size. Whereas outcome of a relationship between product quality and market size familiarity of the products. In this report we examined all aspects of the nestle products. Nestle Standards The nestle quality standards ensures its products acceptance and believe of the consumers in the product. The wide range of the supply of the Nestle products through out the world is presently working as the standards of the quality are maintained by the Nestle Product management team. Quality Assurance The quality means the purity in the product manufacturing by applying the applicable and necessary tools/ techniques which is good for health. The quality ensures the first step of product popularity as the purity/quality of the product is most likely to appreciate by the consumers. The quality of the products ensures the following. popularity of the product Acceptance of the product by the consumers. Health and environmental health factors are satisfied Build organization reputation in the market Gives tough competition to the competitors Nestle has come to realize that current economic down term and keen market competition it is not easy to attract customers without maintaining product quality. Other competitors of Nestle under estimates the enormous significance of seeking and recognizing consumers view and opinions regarding product improvements and service quality besides pricing managements. Nestle given importance the areas focuses on consumers perceptions of product and service quality as well as the product prize. Nestle used to study the data which is collected through the use of questionnaires, personal interviews, observations and data obtained from the market. The Need for the Change The need for the change in any of the company or organization is very much on the cards and necessary for any of the organization to keep itself at the high standards and up to date presentation and working of the company. The quality control is a process to ensure a level of acceptable quality of product. The department of quality control of Nestle keeps a closed watch to maintain the quality according to international standards. The quality control department needs to be changed time to time to get the latest equipments available for the process of quality assurance of the products t various stages of its production. The various products of Nestle go thorough the complex process after many laboratory examination and tests. Quality control involves the examination of product at various levels and after passing all the stages it is approved to be marketed. The Nestle knows very well that it is not possible for a single one but it is the collective responsibility of entire team. The Nestle engaged a team of professionals who work hard to maintain the quality of nestle products. The team work needs to be developed in the workable environment to gain the goal at the neutral grounds. The goal of quality control team of Nestle is to identify the products which do not meet specific standards of quality. The products of the Nestle need the proper advertisement and its presentation in front of the target market to get the appreciation from the market. The change in the policy of the advertisement of the various products is becoming more necessary and vital for the product appreciation and acceptance towards the customers. The change in the management policies and the employment enrollment process is also needs a revision in the company. The cultural and the race difference should be eliminated and the equal opportunity employment should be needed to be structuralized in the organization. Identification for the change If we are looking for the positive change in the organization and making the performance of the organization more and more better. The first step towards this is to create a team which identifies the various areas and spots on which the positive changes can be made and implementation of such changes are logical and applicable for the company. The identification of the changes requirement of the company at various levels is very much inevitable to create the understanding the future of the company and the future of the strategy of the company in the short and the long term basis. The identification can be made possible by making the proper evaluation process and analysis of the history of the various products selling and the future expected demands and trends of the organizations various products and brands in the international market. The change is not only the requirement in the development and the strategies of the brands and the products of the company it is also necessary in the management, employment and in the workforce of the company. The identification of the change in any organization requires the following steps to be taken The evaluation of the brands strategy and acceptance among the consumers The evaluation of the employment satisfaction and performance inside the organization. The evaluation of the consumer management relationship and its outcomes. The analyzing of all the evaluation data and figuring out the malfunctioning parts and brands of the organization Making a effective proposal for the elimination of the problems and the implantation strategy presentation. the possible ways to get the solutions of the ongoing problems and threats that can cause the damages to the origination Areas and Techniques/Methods for Evaluation The company management can adopt various methods and tools to analyze and evaluate its different areas for e.g. they can evaluate brands, consumer management relationship, employment satisfaction and performance etc. Areas Business Environment The analyzing the business environment is very much necessary for the organization. The Nestle maintain the good business environment however the changes according to the passing of time are also on the cards and should be taken time to time to maintain the healthy business environment. Management Performance The management has multi-dimensional responsibilities and should present the sense of responsibility to perform their duties with full commitment and dedication. However the management done their part in the companys work performance and done with responsibility but the evaluation of the performance of the management of the organization is also very important as they should might be fully committed but should be committed enough to meet the needs of the organization in the long run. Employees Participation The employees participation in the change and n the acceptance of the changes is also a big thing to worry about, they are the one which I reality implement the change in any origination. The employment of the organization should be well aware and prepared to accept and implement the change in the origination to get the full participation of the organization. Product Marketing And Delivery The product marketing and delivery is also a very key issue to discuss if we discuss the changes and need to be made the changes in the organization. The review in the marketing and the marketing strategy of the various products should also be a part of the change. Product Appreciation The evaluation form the customers will make the company analyze the appreciation of the product among the consumers of the products especially when the company is launching the new products the customers evaluation should be taken in account as a priority in evaluation. Employment Satisfaction The employment satisfaction to the new changes adopted and the expected changes to be adopted in the future should be analyzed and studied. The evaluation from the employment of the organization is good enough to get the view that the employment of the company is indented to the change or satisfied from this kind of the change or not. Methods: Evaluation Performas: The evaluation Performas are made to get the customers opinion for a particular product and there should be another for the employment that either they need the changes if yes which areas they require changes. This is the best source of getting the direct evaluation from the customers or the employment of the company at a short period of time. Product profit/loss ratio: The product acceptance in the market will get a good business for the company and gives the profit if not so it gives the loss. The analyzing the statistical reports on the profit or loss of the particular products individually will enable the management of the company to make an opinion that the product is doing well enough for the company or not. Market trend: The market trends should also be analyzed by the management of the company to make any decision for the brand or a product. Consumer Behavior: The consumer behavior is the also very must effective stimulus for the change strategy of any organization the consumers are those which can cause the changes in the products and branding of the organization. Diagnostic Change After the brief identification and getting the clear picture of the needs for the changes in the organization the very next step of the management is to diagnose the strategy an effective strategy that can be adopted in the future for the implementation of the changes in the organization. Change Management Process To maintain the quality of the product the Nestle Change management team follows proper outline provided by the Nestle Company. The process involves the following steps Analyzing the available resources of Raw Material. The change management team analyses the different available resources from where the raw material can be collected and utilized in the product manufacturing. The Analyses is done by the team of experts which apply different tools/techniques to test. The quality of the raw material in available resources. The best and purest resources are selected to manufacture a product. Collecting methods for Raw Material The selection of method of collection of new material is as important as the decision to select a source of raw material. The collection of product raw material is done with proper care and by utilizing hygiene tools/ Techniques to make the product look good taste good and it should also be good for health also. Product Manufacturing The product manufacturing is also a very vital and key factor for the quality of the product. The quality of the product can be affected if not manufactured under the good and hygiene standards of the products. The Nestle Company has adopted the applicable methods followed by tools/techniques for the product manufacturing. The product is pure as come under the manufacturing process and the process is designed in such a way that it maintains the quality and purity is assured at the outmost and prime objective. Product Packing The product after manufacturing process is passed to the consumers for the purpose to maintain the quality of the product the packing of the product is done in standard packing which can insure that the quality can be maintained over a large period of time. The packing of product by Nestle is done in such high standard that when its products are used by the consumers the quality standards are maintained and build the image of the Nestle product in the eyes of the Consumers Specially food products are packed in such a way that there are no slide chances of Damage of Nutrition. Implementating A Change The implementation of the change in the organization is very important and the implementation of the change needs a well defined and organized strategy which brings the changes in the organization. The implementation should be done through best available resources and methods and techniques. Criticism on the Change Although the changes in the organization brings many positive developments and progress for the organization but it can face different type of the criticism at various levels by the customers as well as from the employment of the organization. The customers will record or show their criticism if they are not likely to accept the changes in the brands, products or the other options provided by the organization. The employment might also criticize the change in the organization if they are not use to implement such changes which they thought might not be good for them and the organization. Strength Nestle Tries its best to provide the products to there consumers keeping in view the total Change management ethics. Followings are the Strengths of Its products The High Quality and Purity of the Products. The Standard packing and high product image in the market. Competitive quality products in the market. Manageable pricess of the products. Weaknesses It is said there is always remains space for the betterment so Nestle Products always needs improvement with regard to quality and pricing. Following are the Weaknesses of the Nestle Products. Nestle Products are high priced as compare to other companies products. The cost of packing sometimes incurred higher then the product. Quality costs high and it becomes difficult for the company to compete in the market. The prices of standard products changed the consumer behavior. Opportunities The Good will of the company attracted the consumers. A wide range of the product captured the market Standard of the products is pleasing the consumer and changing their preferences. Attractive packing is providing health competition. Packing is hygienically very suitable to maintain quality. Threats Expansion of the market is a major threat to maintain demand and supply. High prices of raw material will effect the cost the products Nestle has expanded the net work in other countries so administrative costs will increase. Storage and supply will effect the market Conclusion The change is what which is required and necessary everywhere in the world and the change for the betterment or the apace for the betterment is always available. Nestle makes packing decisions keeping in view the following reasons Protection of Product -Due to expand marked of Nestle; International standard packaging is used to protect the product from damaging during transportation and minimizing spoilage. Customer protection -A visible packaging design is used to attract customers. This is also important for customers who are not well-known with the Nestle Product. The Nestle tries its best to make its products prominent among thousands of other products of other companies. For which its packaging designs stand out more likely to be remembered future shopping. Value added packaging -Though packing designs and structure and value of the product but benefits can be obtained from the package structure as it make the product easier to use where as stylistic designs catch more attraction of the customers. And looks beautiful in display in the stores as well as at home. Distribution Beautiful and attractive packaging attracts the customers and facilitate the storing. Pricing Affect packaging can influence a significant of a product selling price. It is experienced that some time cost of some product increased to 40% of a product selling price yet people do not mind to purchase owing to high standard maintained quality. However smart packaging minimizes the actual price. Research and Development department of Nestle continuously conduct surveys and research to improve the quality of products and its packaging. Thats why the company develops the revised packaging time to time according to the wishes of its consumers and desires of market. Whenever the company creates a new package it is most often with the intension of having the design on the market for an extended period of time. As changing packaging design for a short period can have negative effects as compare to long term. In order to locate the product and may not confused in the altered design. Recommendations By analyzing the facts and the history of the organization we can recommend the following The change management strategy of the origination should be reviewed and restructured The management and the customers relationship should be built by different scenarios. The new opportunities for the employment and the product launching are required but the management change in terms of organizational behavior is important. The advertisement of the products should be launched with the new strategies and promotional strategies should be developed.

Intelligent Call Routing :: essays research papers

Intelligent Call Routing Mr. Harrison decides to call his credit card company to inquire about a credit limit increase. He picks up the phone and dials the company’s 800 number. He is then prompted by a friendly voice that says, â€Å"Welcome to Mycorp, please enter your 15 digit account number†. After punching his15-digit account number into the handset, he is quickly prompted by a friendly agent who greets him with, â€Å"Hello Mr. Harrison, how are you today?† Surprised that the agent knew he was the one calling, he then mentions that he is interested in a credit limit increase. After the agent helps him with his primary objective, the agent says, â€Å"I noticed you have been traveling a lot lately; would you be interested in upgrading to our new Travelers Green Card?† That’s right. The agent knows a lot about him, but how? Remember the 15-digit account number he entered? To Mycorp it’s much more then 15-digits: it’s about every product he has purchased using his Mycorp credit card; his language preference; if he is past due on his bill; if he is considered a high value customer to the organization; the type of card he has, and much more. The call center of today is evolving at an extraordinary rate. New technologies are popping up all over the globe bringing to the table new and exciting products that will help companies to service their customers in faster and smarter ways. One of the products with the most impact on the market today being used to accomplish this is Intelligent Call Management. Many large organizations such as American Express, Wells Fargo, Charles Schwab, and Discover Card are using Intelligent Call Management to provide better service to their customers. A recent survey discovered that 90% of today’s call centers are using voice-processing applications, while another 54% have introduced Intelligent Call Management into their call center. Intelligent Call Management, or ICM, cannot be accomplished with one single piece of hardware. It involves multiple peripherals working together, each providing a different functionality that contributes to the efficiency of the call delivery. (â€Å"Are Y ou,† 2004) Computers and the telephone have technologically collided and as a result CTI, or Computer Telephony Integration, was born. The CTI component is the most important piece in an ICM environment. With CTI, companies are improving their efficiency, lowering their operating costs, and building the infrastructure for new business opportunities.

Education: Encouraging Lives Essay -- Education Careers Teaching Teach

Education: Encouraging Lives My desire to become a teacher goes beyond a professional aspiration; it is also a personal commitment to self-growth and societal advancement. Since the time I was in school I have had the opportunity and pleasure to work with young people and listen to their problems in school and in their lives on a level where I’m neither a peer nor an authority figure. During this time I have decided to devote myself to these young people; I want to know that I can make a difference in their lives. With my teaching certificate, I will fulfill personal goals, make a change in student’s lives, and inspire younger generations to look for horizons as of yet unconceivable to them. I am now old enough to know what is truly important to me. My life is enriched by improving the quality of others’ lives. Only through exposure, only through learning, can anyone aspire to reach his or her greatest potential. In essence, how can we dream of greater possibilities if we do not know they exist? As in the Biblical parable, I want to teach men to fish and feed them for a lifetime. From my personal experience I believe some teachers have forgotten what a critical role they play in not only the futures of the students who sit before them, but in the future of all our lives collectively. I do not want anyone to look back on their life and see me as one of these teachers but as a teacher that inspired them to be something they never dreamed possible. Teaching involves a multi-level commitment to each and every student, including teaching styles, respect, counseling, and inspiration. Psychologists recognize that individuals have a variety of comprehension and learning abilities. Some people learn through audio and visual stimul... ...e to understand by using real-world experiences. I believe as Jean Piaget did, a constructivist, "to understand is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and such conditions must be complied with if in the future individuals are to be formed who are capable of production and creativity and not simply repetition" as mentioned in his book, To Understand Is to Invent. I do believe people need to learn with Great Books, but comparing things with the real world helps the understanding of these books. In conclusion, my desire to teach is only impeded by the next few years of education that I need to acquire my degree. I understand this will change the role I play in youth’s lives from my current position to an authority figure, but I do believe it will be a change for the best. Teachers wear big shoes and I am committed to filling those to the best of my ability.

The New Age Employee Essays -- American Red Cross Workers Essays

The New Age Employee The Human Resource issue that I will be discussing in my paper stems from the American Red Cross. The first, thing I will discuss is the organization’s external environment and then the HR department’s internal system. In the external environment of the American Red Cross, there are several issues affecting the organization. For example, the U.S population is becoming more diverse according to demographics. Also, the number of donors and volunteer’s is steadily decreasing, and the baby boomers are approaching the age of retirement. As a result, they will take with them, a large amount of the American Red Cross volunteer hours. Consequently, the American Red Cross is looking for volunteer’s to fill their offices nationwide. Internally there are also a lot of issues occurring within the organization’s human resource department. For instance, the new and younger employees coming into the organization, and they are expecting new ways of being recognized for their good work. As a result, the HR department is inventing new ways to accommodate these employees. Which requires the organization to actively go out and recruit employees. This is something that the organization has not encountered before. In my opinion, the American Red Cross should adapt to the changes in their external environment. Such as: the changes in the demographics of the employees within the organization and how those new employees affect the human resources department’s functions. Because, there are no longer just white men at the top of the organization; there are minorities and women that are in the corporate culture. As a result, it is the duty of an organization to adapt and change to its av... ...ix A. Nigro. (1994) 4th Edition.The New Public Personnel Administration. F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc. 2.) Dennis L. Dresang. (1999) 3rd Edition. Public Personnel Management and Public Policy. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 3.) Library of Congress. (2000). Managing Human Resources: A Partnership Perspective. Author, Susan E. Jackson, Randall S. Schuler. South-Western College Publishing, a division of Thomson Learning. 4.) Library of Congress. (2000). Managing Human Resources: A Partnership Perspective. Author, Susan E. Jackson, Randall S. Schuler. South-Western College Publishing, a division of Thomson Learning. 5.) Llyod G. Nigro, Felix A. Nigro. (1994) 4th Edition.The New Public Personnel Administration. F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc. 6.)Dennis L. Dresang. (1999) 3rd Edition. Public Personnel Management and Public Policy. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Every culture has a different set of traits and habits

I agree with the first part of the article. Every culture has a different set of traits and habits. The norms which are considered common in one culture may be considered in-appropriate in other culture. For example in Western culture it’s normal to use credit card or open up personal information to vendors; which is not workable in Eastern societies that includes not only Egypt but India as well. The reason for such cultural attitude is the way business is done. In Eastern it is rare for two individual to do business to trust someone unless they know each other for some time.Thus the idea of pure business relation seems odd in East which is a normal thing in West. The reason for such cultural attitude is the status of economies in the East and West. The third world countries have under developed economies; and these societies are mix of socialistic and capitalist systems. And business is normally done in traditional ways long forgotten in the West. It’s natural in such environment to have lack of trust in e-commerce environment. Creating information societies where people are made aware of internet and the power of e-commerce would be one step in this directionThere may be come some improvement by opening up information; however cultural traits cannot be solved only by making information available. Cultural habits are developed over the course of centuries that will not wither away simply by informing people about internet. The Western societies have been developed through many centuries; which cannot take place over night in the east. In order to develop e-commerce environment; countries like Egypt need to invest in many areas; such as infrastructure, education and more importantly to develop consumer based economy.People in Egypt (and countries like Egypt) are under paid; wealth is very scarce to produce. In such environment people trust only those; whom they know personally, rather than trusting someone online which they have never met or seen . It would take lot of effort by developing countries to work on their economies making them more market oriented and create businesses and opportunities; only then it would be possible to change cultural habits.

Crime Data Comparison Essay

This week in class we were asked to choose two metropolitan areas with different data and write a paper comparing the occurrence of the offense in the selected areas. We were asked to identify the number of occurrences reported to the police for each area, and address the following questions which area had more reported incidents? What were the rates of the crime for each area? Did the rates change over time in either area? What factors might explain the differences in the rates? The information will be presented as it appears above. New York and New Jersey are two metropolitan areas that have had a lot of crime both high profile media grabbing attention and low profile everyday crime occurrences. Therefore these two metro areas can provide for very good demographical crime data as well as have a good base to study from due to the high crime rates in both areas. As such this paper will be comparing forcible rape crime data from both areas to see what is happening in this particular field. So with looking at the FBI.gov web site and looking for info on these two areas and the categories forcible rape it is very clear that this is a very big crime in both areas in new jersey the total for 2011 is 1,006 rape case which the year before in 2010 was at 981 cases which is a 2.5 % increase in this crime. In New York where this crime is a lot higher in totals 2,752 which is 1.6 % less than in 2010’s 2,797 cases. With this data we can see a few things happening here for one we can see that New York has a drop in rap e cases in one year and that New Jersey has increased in this crime, and this could be due to a number of reasons. We know that the two states are almost one in the same and that many people who work in New York live in New Jersey which could mean that these cases could involve residents from both areas and so both would have possibly been reported to. We could speculate that New Jersey has a less severe punishment than New York for rape crime and so the criminals would go to that area to commit the crime due to a less harsh punishment if caught. Another factor on this could be to release times of prisoners within the state that may go to metro areas and commit crimes; this could be a very real factor to consider due to the likely hood of violent criminals repeating their crimes. At any rate not just one factor is the most likely reason as to why we see a drop in New York and an increase in New Jersey. The probability that it has to do with most of if not all stated factors is very real, especially since rape is not a crime that can be predicted nor really deter able unfortunately. And with both metro areas having such high populations it is also possible that many cases were never reported, which is why New York and New Jersey both estimate a total as well as keep records for the actual total. In New York they had an estimate of 2,972 rape case that’s almost three hundred unreported rapes that may have happened. So with knowing that the actual rape cases reported versus the estimated total one could see that even though the statistics are going down and it may look like the crime rate in an area is going down you would still need to see the estimated totals and compare to see what could be unreported and unknown. With the info we have and the estimates on it as well it is clear that although I may appear that New York is getting a handle on its rape crime it may not be as well off as it appears and although New Jersey has had an increase in rape cases it also has lowered its estimate which could be a good sign or bad and unfortunately that is the way crime an statistics go ever changing and adapting. References Uniform Crime Report. (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2011/crime-in-the-u.s.-2011/tables/table-4

History of Digital Computer

The History of Digital Computers B. RANDELL Computing Laboratory, University of Newcastle upon Tyne This account describes the history of the development of digital computers, from the work of Charles Babbage to the earliest electronic stored program computers, It has been prepared for Volume 3 of â€Å"l’Histoire Generale des Techniques,† and is in the main based on the introductory text written by the author for the book â€Å"The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers† (Springer Verlag, 1973). . Charles Babbage THE first electronic digital computers were completed in the late 1940’s. In most cases their developers were unaware that nearly all the important functional characteristics of these computers had been invented over a hundred years earlier by Charles Babbage. It was in 1821 that the English mathematician Charles Babbage became interested in the possibility of mechanising the computation and printing of mathematical tables.He successfully constructed a small machine, which he called a â€Å"difference engine,† capable of automatically generating successive values of simple algebraic functions by means of the method of finite differences. This encouraged him to plan a full-scale machine, and to seek financial backing from the British government. During the next 12 years both Babbage and the government poured considerable sums of money into the attempt at building his Difference Engine.However the project, which called for the construction of six interlinked adding mechanisms, each capable of adding two multiple-digit decimal numbers, together with an automatic printing mechanism, was considerably beyond the technological capabilities of the era – indeed it has been claimed that the efforts expended on the Difference Engine were more than justified simply by the improvements they generated in mechanical engineering equipment and practice.Although Babbage’s plans for a Difference Engine were somewha t premature, the basic scheme was vindicated when in 1843, inspired by their knowledge of his work, George and Edvard Scheutz successfully demonstrated a working prototype difference engine. A final version of this model was completed 10 years later, with financial assistance from the Swedish government. Several other difference engines ere constructed in the decades that followed, but such machines never achieved the importance of more conventional calculating machines, and when multi-register accounting machines became available in the 1920’s it was found that these could be used essentially as difference engines. However Babbage’s ideas soon progressed far beyond that of a special-purpose calculating machine – in fact almost as soon as he started work on his Difference Engine he became dissatisfied with its limitations.In particular he wished to avoid the need to have the highest order of difference constant, in order to be able to use the machine directly fo r transcendental as well as algebraic functions. In 1834 Babbage started active work on these matters, and on problems such as division and the need to speed up the part of the addition mechanism which dealt with the assimilation of carry digits. He developed several very ingenious methods of carry assimilation, but the time savings so obtainable would have been at the cost of a considerable amount of complex machinery.This led Babbage to realise the advantages of having a single centralised arithmetic mechanism, the â€Å"mill,† separate from the â€Å"figure axes,† i. e. , columns of discs which acted merely as storage locations rather than accumulators. Babbage’s first idea for controlling the sequencing of the various component mechanisms of the engine was to use â€Å"barrels,† i. e. , rotating pegged cylinders of the sort used in musical automata. He first planned to use a set of subsidiary barrels, with over-all control of the machine being specifi ed by a large central barrel with exchangeable pegs.However in June 1836 he took the major step of adopting a punched card mechanism, of the kind found in Jacquard looms, in place of the rather limited and cumbersome central barrel. He did so in the realisation that the â€Å"formulae† which specified the computation that the machine was to perform could therefore be of almost unbounded extent, and that it would be a simple matter to change from the use of one formula to another.Normally formula cards, each specifying an arithmetic operation to be performed, were to be read by the Jacquard mechanism in sequence, but Babbage also envisaged means whereby this sequence could be broken and then recommenced at an earlier or later card in the sequence. Moreover he allowed the choice of the next card which was to be used to be influenced by the partial results that the machine had obtained.These provisions allowed him to claim that computations of indefinite complexity could be perf ormed under the control of comparatively small sets of formula cards. Babbage talked at one time of having a store consisting of no less than 1000 figure axes, each capable of holding a signed 40-digit decimal number, and planned to provide for reading numbers from cards into the store, and for punching or printing the values of numbers held in the store.The movement of numbers between the mill and the store was to be controlled by a sequence of â€Å"variable cards,† each specifying which particular figure axis was involved. Therefore an arithmetic operation whose operands were to be obtained from the store and whose result was to be returned to the store would be specified by an operation card and several variable cards. He apparently intended these different kinds of control cards to be in separate sequences, read by separate Jacquard mechanisms.Thus in the space of perhaps 3 years Babbage had arrived at the concept of a general purpose digital computer consisting of a sto re, arithmetic unit, punched card input and output, and a card-controlled sequencing mechanism that provided iteration and conditional branching. Moreover although he continued to regard the machine, which he later came to call the Analytical Engine, as being principally for the construction of mathematical tables, he had a very clear grasp of the conceptual advances he had made.Basing his claim on the unbounded number of operation and variable cards that could be used to control the machine, the ease with which complicated conditional branches could be built from a sequence of simple ones, and the fact that automatic input and output, and multiple precision arithmetic, were provided, he stated that â€Å". . . it appears that the whole of the conditions which enable a finite machine to make calculations of unlimited extent are fulfilled in the Analytical Engine . . . . I have converted the infinity of space, which was required by the conditions of the problem, into the infinity of time. Because separate, but associated, sequences of cards were needed to control the Analytical Engine the concept of a program as we know it now does not appear very c1early in contemporary descriptions of the machine. However there is evidence that Babbage had realised the fact that the information punched on the cards which controlled the engine could itself have been manipulated by an automatic machine-for example he suggested the possibility of the Analytical Engine itself being used to assist in the preparation of lengthy sequences of control cards.Indeed in the description of the use of the Analytical Engine written by Lady Lovelace, in collaboration with Babbage, there are passages which would appear to indicate that it had been realised that an Analytical Engine was fully capable of manipulating symbolic as well as arithmetical quantities. Probably Babbage himself realised that the complete Analytical Engine was impractical to build, but he spent much of the rest of his l ife designing and redesigning mechanisms for the machine.The realisation of his dream had to await the development of a totally new technology, and an era when the considerable finances and facilities required for an automatic computer would be made available, the need at last being widely enough appreciated. He was a century ahead of his time, for as one of the pioneers of the modern electronic digital computer has written: â€Å"Babbage was moving in a world of logical design and system architecture, and was familiar with and had solutions for problems that were not to be discussed in the literature for another 100 years. †He died in 1871, leaving an immense collection of engineering drawings and documents, but merely a small portion of the Analytical Engine, consisting of an addition and a printing mechanism, whose assembly was completed by his son, Henry Babbage. This machine and Babbage’s engineering drawings are now in the Science Museum, London. 2. Babbageâ€⠄¢s direct successors Some years’ after Babbage’s death his son Henry Babbage recommenced work on the construction of a mechanical calculating machine, basing his efforts on the designs his father had made for the Mill of the Analytical Engine.This work was started in 1888 and carried on very intermittently. It was completed only in about 1910 when the Mill, which incorporated a printing mechanism, was demonstrated at a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society. By this date however the work of a little-known successor to Charles Babbage, an Irish accountant named Percy Ludgate, was already well advanced. Ludgate started work in 1903 at the age of 20 on an entirely novel scheme for performing arithmetic on decimal numbers.Decimal digits were to be represented by the lateral position of a sliding metal rod, rather than the angular position of a geared disc. The basic operation provided was multiplication, which used a complicated mechanism for calculating the two-digit products resulting from multiplying pairs of decimal digits. together. The scheme involved first transforming the digits into a form of logarithm, adding the logarithms together, and then converting the result back into a two-digit sum.This scheme is quite unlike any known to have been used in earlier mechanical calculators, or for that matter since, although there had been several calculating machines constructed that used built-in multiplication tables to obtain two-digit products – the earliest known of these was that invented by Bollee in 1887. It is in fact difficult to see any advantages to Ludgate’s logarithmic scheme, although his form of number representation is reminiscent of that used in various mechanical calculating devices in the following decades.So striking are the differences between Ludgate’s and Babbage’s ideas for mechanical arithmetic that there is no reason to dispute Ludgate’s statement that he did not learn of Babbageâ€℠¢s prior work until the later stages of his own. It seems likely that Babbage was the eventual inspiration for Ludgate to investigate the provision of a sequence control mechanism. Here he made an advance over the rather awkward system that Babbage had planned, involving separate sets of operation and variable cards.Instead his machine was to have been controlled by a single perforated paper tape, each row of which represented an instruction consisting of an operation code and four address fields. Control transfers simply involved moving the tape the appropriate number of rows forwards or backwards. Moreover he also envisaged the provision of what we would now call subroutines, represented by sequences of perforations around the circumference of special cylinders-one such cylinder was to be provided The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications 2 for division.The machine was also to be controllable from a keyboard, a byproduct of whose operation would be a perforated tape which could then be used to enable the sequence of manually controlled operations to be repeated automatically. Ludgate estimated that his Analytical Machine would be capable of multiplying two twenty-digit numbers in about 10 seconds, and that, in considerable contrast to Babbage’s Analytical Engine, it would be portable. However there is no evidence that he ever tried to construct the machine, which he apparently worked on alone, in his spare time.He died in 1922, and even if at this time his plans for the Analytical Machine still existed there is now no trace of them, and our knowledge of the machine depends almost entirely on the one description of it that he published. The next person who is known to have followed in the footsteps of Babbage and to have worked on the problems of designing an analytical engine was Leonardo Torres y Quevedo. Torres was born in the province of Santander in Spain in 1852.Although qualified as a civil engineer he devoted his career to scientific re search, and in particular to the design and construction of an astonishing variety of calculating devices and automata. He gained great renown, particularly in France and in Spain, where he became President of the Academy of Sciences of Madrid, and where following his death in 1936 an institute for scientific research was named after him. Torres first worked on analog calculating devices, including equation solvers and integrators.In the early 1900’s he built various radio-controlled devices, including a torpedo and a boat which, according to the number of pulses it received, could select between various rudder positions and speeds, and cause a flag to be run up and down a mast. In 1911 he made and successfully demonstrated the first of two chess-playing automata for the end game of king and rook against king. The machine was fully automatic, with electrical sensing of the positions of the pieces on the board and a mechanical arm to move its own pieces. The second machine was built in 1922, and used magnets underneath the board to move the pieces. ) In all this work, he was deliberately exploiting the new facilities that electromechanical techniques offered, and challenging accepted ideas as to the limitations of machines. He picked on Babbage’s Analytical Engine as an important and interesting technical challenge, and in 1914 published a paper incorporating detailed schematic designs for a suitable set of electro-mechanical components.These included devices for storing, comparing and multiplying numbers, and were accompanied by a discussion of what is now called floating point number representation. He demonstrated the use of the devices in a design for a special-purpose program-controlled calculator. The program was to be represented by areas of conductive material placed on the surface of a rotating drum, and incorporated a means for specifying conditional branching. Torres clearly never intended to construct a machine to his design, but 6 yea rs later he built, and successfully demonstrated, a typewriter-controlled calculating machine primarily to demonstrate that an electromechanical analytical engine was completely feasible. He in fact never did build an analytical engine, although he designed, and in many cases built, various other digital devices including two more calculating machines, an automatic weighing machine, and a machine for playing a game somewhat like the game of Nim. However there seems little reason to doubt that, should the need have been sufficiently pressing, Torres would indeed have built a complete analytical engine.In the event, it was not until the 1939-1945 war that the desirability of largescale fully automatic calculating machines became so clear that the necessary environment was created for Babbage’s concept to become a reality. Before this occurred there is known to have been at least one further effort at designing an analytical engine. This was by a Frenchman, Louis Couffignal, who was motivated mainly by a desire to reduce the incidence of errors in numerical computations.He was familiar with the work of Babbage and Torres y Quevedo but, in contrast to their designs, proposed to use binary number representation. The binary digits of stored numbers were to be represented by the lateral position of a set of parallel bars controlled by electro-magnets. The various arithmetic operations were to be performed by relay networks, the whole machine being controlled by perforated tapes. Couffignal apparently had every intention of building this machine, in association with the Logabax Company, but presumably because of the war never did so.However after the war he was in charge of an electronic computer project for the Institut Blaise Pascal, the design study and construction of the machine being in the hands of the Logabax Company. With Couffignal’s pre-war plans, the line of direct succession to Babbage’s Analytical Engine seems to have come to an end. Most of the wartime computer projects were apparently carried out in ignorance of the extent to which many of the problems that had to be dealt with had been tackled by Babbage over a century earlier. However in some cases there is clear evidence that nowledge of Babbage’s work was an influence on the wartime pioneers, in particular Howard Aiken, originator of the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, and William Phillips, an early proponent of binary calculation, and various other influential people, including Vannevar Bush and L. J. Comrie, were also well aware of his dream. 3. The contribution of the punched card industry An initially quite separate thread of activity leading to the development of the modern computer originated with the invention of the punched card tabulating system.The capabilities of Herman Hollerith’s equipment, first used on a large scale for the 1890 US National Census, were soon extended considerably. The original equipment allowed cards to hold binary information representing the answers to a Census questionnaire. These cards could be tabulated, one by one, using a machine which sensed the presence of holes in the card electrically and could be wired to count the number of cards processed in which particular holes or combinations of holes had been punched. A device could be attached to such a tabulator which assisted the manual sorting of cards into a number of separate sequences.Within 10 years automatic card handling mechanisms, which greatly increased the speed of machine operation, and addition units, which enabled card tabulators to sum decimal numbers punched on cards, had been provided. The system soon came into widespread use in the accounting departments of various commercial organisations, as well as being used for statistical tabulations in many countries of the world. After the 1900 US Census relations between Hollerith and the Census Bureau deteriorated, and the Bureau began to manufacture its own equ ipment for use in the 1910 Census.The person in charge of this work was James Powers who circumvented Hollerith’s patents by producing a mechanical card reading apparatus. He retained the patent rights to his inventions and formed his own company which eventually merged with Remington Rand in 1927. In 1911 Hollerith sold his own company, the Tabulating Machine Company, which he had formed in 1896, and it was shortly afterwards merged with two other companies to form the Computing-TabulatingRecording Company. This company which was under the direction of Thomas J.Watson from 1914 became the International Business Machines Corporation in 1924. During the 1920’s and 1930’s punched card systems developed steadily, aided no doubt by the stimulus of competition, not only in the USA but also in Britain, where the Hollerith and Powers-based systems continued to be marketed under the names of their original inventors, while in France a third manufacturer, Compagnie Machi nes Bull, was also active. Unfortunately the people involved in this work did not in general publish technical papers and their work has received little public recognition.Thus full appreciation of the contribution of IBM development engineers, such as J. W. Bryce, one of the most prolific inventors of his era, will probably have to await an analysis of the patent literature. One inventor whose work has, however, been documented is Gustav Tauschek, a self-taught Viennese engineer, with more than 200 patents in the computing field to his credit. While working for Rheinische Metallund Maschinenfabrik he designed and built a punched card electromechanical accounting machine.His other patents, many of which were filed whilst he was under contract to IBM during the 1930’s, also included a â€Å"reading-writing-calculating machine† which used photocells to compare printed input characters with templates held on photographic film, a number storage device using magnetised stee l plates, and an electromechanical accounting machine designed for use in small banks capable of storing the records of up to 10 000 accounts. By the 1930’s printing tabulators were available which worked at approximately 100 cards per minute, and there were sorters which worked at 400 cards per minute.The machines were controlled by fairly intricate plugboards, but arithmetic and logical computations involving sequences of operations of any great complexity were carried out by repeated processing of sets of cards, under the direction of operators. Various attempts were made to supplement the functional capabilities of punched card systems by linking together otherwise independent machines. One such system, the Synchro-Madas machine, incorporated a typewriter/accounting machine, an automatic calculating machine and an automatic card punch.These were linked together so that a single action by the operator sitting at the typewriter/accounting machine would control several opera tions on the different machines. One other system involving a set of inter-linked card machines, although very different in concept and scale from the Synchro-Madas machine, is worth mentioning. This is the Remote-control Accounting system which was experimented with in a Pittsburgh department store, also in the mid-1930’s. The system involved 250 terminals connected by telephone lines to 20 Powers card punch/tabulators and 15 on-line typewriters.The terminals transmitted data from punched merchandise tags which were used to produce punched sales record cards, later used for customer billing. The typewriter terminals were used for credit authorisation purposes. The intended peak transaction rate was 9000 per hour. Even during the 1920’s punched card systems were used not only for accounting and the compilation of statistics, but also for complex statistical calculations. However the first important scientific application of punched card systems was made by L.J. Comrie in 1929. Comrie was Superintendent of HM Nautical Almanac Office until 1936, and then founded the Scientific Computing Service. He made a speciality of putting commercial computing machinery to scientific use, and introduced Hollerith equipment to the Nautical Almanac Office. His calculations of the future positions of the Moon, which involved the punching of half a million cards, stimulated many other scientists to exploit the possibilities of punched card systems. One such scientist was Wallace J.Eckert, an astronomer at Columbia University, which already had been donated machines for a Statistical Laboratory by IBM in 1929, including the â€Å"Statistical Calculator,† a specially developed tabulator which was the forerunner of the IBM Type 600 series of multiplying punches, and of the mechanisms used in the Harvard Mark I machine. With assistance from IBM in 1934 Eckert set up a scientific computing laboratory in the Columbia Astronomy Department, a laboratory which was la ter to become the Thomas J.Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau. In order to facilitate the use of his punched card equipment Eckert developed a centralised control mechanism, linked to a numerical tabulator, a summary punch and a multiplying punch, so that a short cycle of different operations could be performed at high speed. The control mechanism which was based on a stepping switch enabled many calculations, even some solutions 4 The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications of differential equations, to be performed completely automatically.The potential of a system of inter-connected punched card machines, controlled by a fully general-purpose sequencing mechanism, and the essential similarity of such a system to Babbage’s plans for an Analytical Engine, were discussed in an article published by Vannevar Bush in 1936. Bush was at this time already renowned for his work on the first differential analyser, and during the war held the influential position of Director o f the US Office of Scientific Research and Development.In fact an attempt was made to build such a system of inter-connected punched card machines at the Institut fur Praktische Mathematik of the Technische Hochschule, Darmstadt, in Germany during the war. The plans called for the inter-connection of a standard Hollerith multiplier and tabulators, and specially constructed divider and function generators, using a punched tape sequence control mechanism. Work was abandoned on the project following a destructive air raid in September 1944. However, by this stage, in the United States much more ambitious efforts were being made to apply the expertise of punched card equipment designers.The efforts originated in 1937 with a proposal by Howard Aiken of Harvard University that a large-scale scientific calculator be constructed by inter-connecting a set of punched card machines via a master control panel. This would be plugged so as to govern the transmission of numerical operands and the sequencing of arithmetic operations. Through Dr. Shapley, director of the Harvard College Observatory, Aiken became acquainted with Wallace Eckert’s punched card installation at Columbia University.These contacts helped Aiken to persuade IBM to undertake the task of developing and building a machine to his basic design. For IBM, J. W. Bryce assigned C. D. Lake, F. E. Hamilton and B. M. Durfee to the task. Aiken later acknowledged these three engineers as co-inventors of the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Harvard Mark I as it became known. The machine was built at the IBM development laboratories at Endicott and was demonstrated there in January 1943 before being shipped to Harvard, where it became operational in May 1944.In August of that year IBM, in the person of Thomas J. Watson, donated the machine to Harvard where it was used initially for classified work for the US Navy. The design of the Harvard Mark I followed the original proposals by Aiken fairly close ly, but it was built using a large number of the major components used in the various types of punched card machines then manufactured, rather than from a set of complete machines themselves. It incorporated 72 â€Å"storage counters† each of which served as both a storage location, and as a complete adding and subtracting machine.Each counter consisted of 24 electromechanical counter wheels and could store a signed 23digit decimal number. A special multiply/divide unit, and units for obtaining the value of previously computed functions held on perforated tape, and for performing interpolation, were provided together with input/output equipment such as card readers and punches, and typewriters. The various mechanisms and counter wheels were all driven and synchronised by a single gearconnected mechanical system extending along nearly the entire length of the calculator.A main sequence control mechanism incorporating a punched tape reader governed the operation of the machine. Each horizontal row on the tape had space for three groups of eight holes, known as the A, B and C groups. Together these specified a single instruction of the form â€Å"Take the number out of unit A, deliver it to unit B, and start operation C. † Somewhat surprisingly, in view of Aiken’s knowledge of Babbage’s work and writings, no provision was made originally for conditional branching.As it was, such provision was only made later when a subsidiary sequence control mechanism was built at Harvard and incorporated into the machine. The Harvard Mark I was a massive machine over 50 feet long, built on a lavish scale. Being largely mechanical its speed was somewhat limited – for example multiplication took 6 seconds – but it continued in active use at Harvard until 1959. It has an important place in the history of computers although the long-held belief that it was the world’s first operational programcontrolled computer was proved to be fals e, once the details of Zuse’s wartime work in Germany became known.It marked a major step by IBM towards full involvement in the design of general-purpose computers and, with ENIAC and the Bell Telephone Laboratories Series, represents the starting point of American computer developments. After completion of the Mark I, Aiken and IBM pursued independent paths. Aiken, still distrustful of the reliability of electronic components, moved to electromagnetic relays for the construction of the Harvard Mark II, another paper-tape-sequenced calculator.This machine had an internal store which could hold about 100 dccimal floating point numbers. One of the most interesting aspects of the machine was that it could be operated either as a single computer or as two separate ones. The complete system incorporated four of each type of input/output device, namely sequence tape readers, data tape readers and punches, numerical function tape readers and output printers. It also had multiple ar ithmetic facilities, including two adders and four multipliers (taking 0. 7 second) which could all be used simultaneously.Detailed design of the machine, which was intended for the US Naval Proving Ground, Dahlgren, Virginia, began at Harvard early in 1945, and the machine was completed in 1947. Afterwards Aiken and his colleagues went on to design the Mark III, an electronic computer with magnetic drum storage, completed in 1950, and the Mark IV, which incorporated 200 magnetic core shift registers, completed in 1952. The designers of IBM’s next machine, the Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator, included two of the Harvard Mark I’s design team, namely C. D. Lake and B. M.Durfee, but the machine in fact had more in common with IBM’s earlier calculating punches than with the Mark I; like the punches it was controlled using plugboard-specified sequencing, rather than by a sequence control tape of essentially unlimited length. Its relay construction resulted in its basic operation speed being considerably faster than the Mark I, although it lacked the Mark I’s ease and flexibility of programming, demanding instead the kind of detailed design of parallel subsequencing that one sees nowadays at the microprogramming level of some computers.Great stress was raid by the designers on the efficient use of punched card input/output, and it was claimed that in many cases, where other machines’ internal storage capacity proved inadequate, the IBM relay calculators could outperform even the contemporary electronic computers. Several machines were built, the first of which was delivered in December 1944 to the Aberdeen Proving Ground, and two were installed at the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory that IBM had set up at Columbia University under the directorship of Wallace Eckert.The Relay Calculator was followed by the giant IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator, a machine which was very much in the tradition of the Mark I. Wal lace Eckert was responsible for the logical organisation of the machine, with Frank Hamilton being the chief engineer on the project. The design was a compromise between Eckert’s wish, for performance reasons, to use electronic components to the full, and Hamilton’s preference for electro-mechanical relays, on grounds of reliability. As a result vacuum tubes were used for the arithmetic unit, the control circuitry, and the 8 word high-speed store, relays being used elsewhere.In addition to the 8 word store there was a 150 word random access electro-magnetic store and storage for 20000 numbers in the form of punched tapes. Numbers would be read from the electro-magnetic store, or in sequence from the punched tape store, at the speed of the multiplier, i. e. , every 20 milliseconds. The design was started in 1945, and the machine was built in great secrecy at Endicott, before being moved to New York City, where it was publicly unveiled at an elaborate dedication ceremony in January 1948. The most important aspect of the SSEC, credited to R. R.Seeber, was that it could perform arithmetic on, and then execute, stored instructions – it was almost certainly the first operational machine with these capabilities. This led to IBM obtaining some very important patents, but the machine as a whole was soon regarded as somewhat anachronistic and was dismantled in 1952. It had however provided IBM with some valuable experience – for example, Hamilton and some of his engineering colleagues went on to design the highly successful IBM 650, and many of the SSEC programmers later became members of the IBM 701 programming group.Finally, mention should be made of one other machine manufactured by IBM which can be classed as a precursor to the modern electronic digital computer. This was the Card Programmed Calculator, a machine which along with its predecessors now tends to be overshadowed by the SSEC. Like the Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator, the C PC can trace its origins to the IBM 600 series of multiplying punches. In 1946 IBM announced the Type 603, the first production electronic calculator. The IBM 603, which incorporated 300 valves, was developed from an experimental multiplier designed at Endicott under the direction of R.L. Palmer in 1942. One hundred machines were sold, and then IBM replaced it with the Type 604, a plugboardcontrolled electronic calculator, which provided conditional branching but, lacking backward jumps, no means of constructing program loops. Deliveries of the 604, which incorporated over 1400 valves, started in 1948 and within the next 10 years over 5000 were installed. In 1948 a 604 was coupled to a type 402 accounting machine by Northrop Aircraft Company, in order to provide the 604 with increased capacity and with printing facilities. This idea was taken up by IBM, and formed the basis of the CPC.Nearly 700 CPC’s were built, and this machine played a vital role in providing computing pow er to many installations in the USA until stored program electronic computers became commercially available on a reasonable scale. In the years that followed the introduction of the CPC, IBM continued to develop its range of electronic calculators and, starting in 1952 with the IBM 701, an electronic computer in the tradition of von Neumann’s IAS machine, took its first steps towards achieving its present dominant position amongst electronic computer manufacturers. . Konrad Zuse Konrad Zuse started to work on the development of mechanical aids to calculation as early as 1934, at the age of 24. He was studying civil engineering at the Technische Hochschule, Berlin-Charlottenburg, and sought some means of relief from the tedious calculations that had to be performed. His first idea had been to design special forms to facilitate ordinary manual calculation, but then he decided to try to mechanise the operation.Continuing to use the special layouts that he had designed for his fo rms, he investigated representing numerical data by means of perforations, and the use of a hand-held sensing device which could communicate the data over an electrical cable to an automatic calculating machine. The idea then arose of using a mechanical register rather than perforated cards, and, realising that the layout was irrelevant, Zuse started to develop a general purpose mechanical store, whose locations were addressed numerically.By 1936 he had the basic design of a floating point binary computer, controlled by a program tape consisting of a sequence of instructions, each of which specified an operation code, two operand addresses and a result address. Thus, apparently quite independently of earlier work by Babbage and his successors on analytical engines, Zuse had very quickly reached the point of having a design for a general-purpose program-controlled computer, although the idea of conditional branching was lacking.More importantly, even though the various basic The Inst itute of Mathematics and its Applications 6 ideas that his design incorporated had, it now turns out, been thought of earlier (i. e. , binary mechanical arithmetic (Leibniz), program control (Babbage), instruction formats with numerical storage addresses (Ludgate) and floating point number representations (Torres y Quevedo)), Zuse’s great achievement was to turn these ideas into reality. Zuse had considerable trouble finding sponsors willing to finance the building of his machine.Despite his financial difficulties his first machine, the Z1, which was of entirely mechanical construction was completed in 1938, but it proved unreliable in operation. He then started to construct a second, fixed-point binary, machine which incorporated the 16 word mechanical binary store of the Z1, but was otherwise built from second-hand telephone relays. Although the Z2 computer was completed it was inadequate for any practical use. However by this time a colleague, Helmut Schreyer, was already working with Zuse on the problem of producing an electronic version of the Z1.This led to the construction of a small 10 place binary arithmetic unit, with approximately 100 valves, but proposals that Schreyer and Zuse made to the German government for a 1500 valve electronic computer were rejected and the work was discontinued in 1942. Earlier, in 1939, Zuse was called up for military service, but managed to get released after about a year, and for the first time received significant government backing for his plans. This enabled him to build the Z3 computer, a binary machine with a 64 word store, all built out of telephone relays.This computer, since it was operational in 1941, is believed to have been the world’s first general-purpose program-controlled computer. It incorporated units for addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and square root, using a floating point number representation with a sign bit, a 7-bit exponent and a 14-bit mantissa. Input was via a manu al keyboard and output via a set of lights, in each case with automatic binary/decimal conversion, and the machine was controlled by a perforated tape carrying single address instructions, i. . , instructions specifying one operand, and an operation. In addition to his series of general-purpose computers, Zuse built two special-purpose computers, both used for calculations concerning aircraft wing profiles. The first of these was in use for 2 years at the Henschel Aircraft Works, before being destroyed through war damage. Both computers had fixed programs, wired on to rotary switches, and performed calculations involving addition, subtraction and multiplication by constant factors.Soon after completion of the Z3, the design of an improved version, the Z4, was started. This was mainly electro-mechanical but incorporated a purely mechanical binary store similar to that which had been used for the Zl and Z2 machines. The partially completed Z4 was the only one of Zuse’s machines to survive the war – indeed it eventually was completed and gave years of successful service at the Technische Hochschule, Zurich. The Z4 was inspected shortly after the war by R. C. Lyndon, whose report on the machine for the US Office f Naval Research was published in 1947. At this stage the Z4 had only manual input and output, and no means of conditional branching, although it was planned to add four tape readers and two tape punches, and facilities for repeating programs and for choosing between alternate subprograms. The machine was housed in the cellar of a farmhouse in the little village of Hopferau in Bavaria, and was not fully operational, but the mechanical store and various arithmetic operations and their automatic sequencing were successfully demonstrated to Lyndon.His report, although it gives a fairly full description of the Z4 (with the exception of the mechanical store, which he was not allowed to examine in detail), made virtually no mention of Zuse’s earlier work. Indeed it was many years before any other English language accounts of Zuse’s work were published, and Zuse’s rightful place in the chronology of computer development became at all widely appreciated. 5. Bell Telephone Laboratories The potentialities of telephone equipment for the construction of digital calculation devices were not realised for many years.The first automatic telephone exchange, which used the step-by-step or Strowger switch, was installed in 1892. As early as 1906 Molina devised a system for translating the pulses representing the dialled decimal digits into a more convenient number system. Exchanges based mainly on the use of electromechanical relays started to come into use at the turn of the century, the earliest successful centralised automatic exchanges dating from about 1914. However, from the late 1920’s various different calculating devices were developed using telephone equipment.Perhaps the most spectacular of these was the automatic totalisator. Totalisator, or â€Å"pari-mutuel,† betting became legal on British race courses in July 1929. Development of fully automatic totalisators consisting of ticket-issuing machines situated in various parts of the race course, a central calculating apparatus, and display boards which indicated the number and total value of bets made on each horse, and on the race as a whole, was already well under way.There were several rival systems. The Hamilton Totalisator and the totalisator produced by the British Automatic Totalisator Company were fully electrical, both as regards the calculations performed and the operation of the display boards, whereas the Lightning Totalisator used electrical impulses from remote ticket machines only to release steel balls which fell through tubes and actuated a mechanical adding apparatus.In January 1930 the Racecourse Betting Control Board demonstrated at Thirsk Racecourse a new standard electric totalisator supplied by Bri tish Thompson Houston, built from Strowger switches. This machine which was transportable from racecourse to racecourse could accumulate bets on up to six horses at a maximum rate of 12 000 per minute. The machine had in fact been designed in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1928 but the first complete machine to be used in the USA was installed by the American Totalisator Company at Arlington Park nly in 1933. In succeeding years much more sophisticated totalisators, involving hundreds of remote ticket-issuing machines, were used at racecourses all over USA, and it was not until many years after the advent of the electronic computer that one was used as a replacement for the central calculating apparatus of the totalisator. One early little-known design for a calculating machine to be built from telephone relays was that of Bernard Weiner in Czechoslovakia in 1923.Weiner, in association with the Vitkovice Iron Works, went on during the 1930’s to design a more powerful automatic calcu lator. He did not survive the war, and nothing is known about the results of this work. Other early work was done by Nicoladze who in 1928 designed a multiplier based on the principle of Genaille’s rods. (These were a non-mechanical aid to multiplication which enabled a person to read off the product of a multidigit number by a single digit number. Four years later Hamann described not only various different styles of relay-based multiplier, but also a device for solving sets of simultaneous linear equations, and shortly afterwards Weygandt demonstrated a prototype determinant evaluator, capable of dealing with 3 x 3 determinants. Undoubtedly in the years that followed many other digital calculating devices were developed based on telephone relay equipment, particularly during the war for such military applications as ballistics calculations and cryptanalysis – indeed, as mentioned earlier, some of Zuse’s machines made extensive use of telephone relays.It is per haps a little surprising that it was not until 1937 that Bell Telephone Laboratories investigated the design of calculating devices, although from about 1925 the possibility of using relay circuit techniques for such purposes was well accepted there. However, in 1937 George Stibitz started to experiment with relays, and drew up circuit designs for addition, multiplication and division. At first he concentrated on binary arithmetic, together with automatic decimal-binary and binarydecimal conversion, but later turned his attention to a binary-coded decimal number representation.The project became an official one when, prompted by T. C. Fry, Stibitz started to design a calculator capable of multiplying and dividing complex numbers, which was intended to fill a very practical need, namely to facilitate the solution of problems in the design of filter networks, and so started the very important Bell Telephone Laboratories Series of Relay Computers. In November 1938, S. B. Williams took over responsibility for the machine’s development and together with Stibitz refined the design of the calculator, whose construction was started in April and completed in October of 1939.The calculator, which became known as the â€Å"Complex Number Computer† (often shortened to â€Å"Complex Computer,† and as other calculators were built, the â€Å"Model I†), began routine operation in January 1940. Within a short time it was modified so as to provide facilities for the addition and subtraction of complex numbers, and was provided with a second, and then a third, teletype control, situated in remote locations. It remained in daily use at Bell Laboratories until 1949.The Complex Computer was publicly demonstrated for the first time in September 1940 by being operated in its New York City location from a teletypewriter installed in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the occasion of a meeting of the American Mathematical Society, a demonstration that both John Mauc hly and Norbert Wiener attended. During 1939 and 1940 Stibitz started work on the idea of automatic sequencing and on the use of error-detecting codes. These ideas were not pursued actively until, a year or so later, the onset of the war rovided a strong stimulus and the necessary financial climate. They then formed the basis of the second of the Bell Laboratories relay calculators, the â€Å"Relay Interpolator. † This was a special-purpose tape-controlled device, with selfchecking arithmetic, designed to solve fire control problems, and was built for the National Defense Research Council, to which Stibitz had been lent by Bell Laboratories. Although mainly used for interpolation it was also used for a few problems in harmonic analysis, calculation of roots of polynomials and solution of differential equations.It became operational in September 1943, and after the war it was handed over to the US Naval Research Laboratory, where it was in use until 1961. The Model III relay c alculator, the â€Å"Ballistic Computer,† work on which started in 1942, was a much more complete realisation of Stibitz’s early plans for an automatic computer, and although once again intended for fire control problems was much more versatile than the Model II. It was tape-controlled, and had a tenregister store, a built-in multiplier (designed by E. L.Vibbard), and devices for performing automatic look-up of tables held on perforated paper tape. Perhaps most impressive was the fact that the machine was 100 per cent. self-checked. The machine was completed in June 1944, and remained in use until 1958. The Model IV relay calculator was little different from the Model III, and the series culminated in the Model V, a truly general-purpose program-controlled computer, complete with convenient conditional branching facilities. (The final member of the series, Model VI, was essentially just a simplified version of the Model V. Two copies of the Model V were built, the firs t being delivered in 1946 to the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics at Langley Field, Virginia, and the second in 1947 to the Ballistics Research Laboratory at Aberdeen, Maryland. With its multiple computing units, the Model V, which used floating point arithmetic, was what we would now call a multiprocessing system, and its â€Å"problem tapes† were the forerunners of the early simple batch-processing operating systems. Each of the two computing units comprising a complete system contained 15 storage registers.A single register could hold a floating point number consisting of a sign, a seven-decimal digit mantissa and a two-digit exponent. Decimal digits were stored in a bi-quinary form, using seven relays, and each register used a total of 62 relays. Each unit had independent provision for the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and for 8 The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications taking the square root of floating point numbers, and for printi ng or punching its results.In addition a large set of tape readers, intended for tapes of input data, tabulated functions and programs, and for the problem tapes which controlled the running of series of separate programs, were shared by the two computer units. These units normally functioned as independent computers, but for large problems would be arranged to work cooperatively. Although somewhat slow in execution, the Model V set new standards for reliability, versatility and ease of switching from one task to another, and in so doing must surely have had an important influence on the designers of the earliest round of general-purpose electronic computers.In later years, quite a number of relay calculators were constructed, in both the USA and Europe, even after the first stored program electronic computers became operational, but the importance of their role in the history of computers hardly matches that of the Bell Laboratories Model V and its contemporaries. 6. The advent of electronic computers The earliest known electronic digital circuit, a â€Å"trigger relay,† which involved a pair of valves in a circuit with two stable states and was an early form of flip-flop, was described by Eccles and Jordan in 1919.The next development that we know of was the use by WynnWilliams at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, of thyratrons in counting circuits including, in 1932, a â€Å"scale-of-two† (binary) counter. By the end of the decade quite a few papers had been published on electronic counters intended for counting impulses from GeigerMuller tubes used in nuclear physics experiments. WynnWilliams’ work had a direct influence on the ideas of William Phillips, who apparently in 1935 attempted to patent a binary electronic computing machine.He built a mechanical model, which still exists, of the intended electronic multiplication unit but no other details are presently known of his planned machine. The first known attempt to build an elect ronic digital calculating machine was begun by John V. Atanasoff in the mid-1930’s at Iowa State College where there had been an active interest in statistical applications using punched card equipment since the early 1920’s. As an applied mathematician Atanasoff had many problems requiring generalisations of existing methods of approximating solutions of linear operational equations.He first explored the use of analog techniques and with Lynn Hannum, one of his graduate students, developed the â€Å"Laplaciometer,† a device for solving Laplace’s equation in two dimensions with various boundary conditions. By 1935 the realisation of the sharp limitations of analog computing forced Atanasoff to digital methods. The disadvantages of mechanical techniques and his knowledge of electronics and of the work of Eccles and Jordan then led him to consider an electronic approach.He soon found that in these circumstances a base two number system would have great adva ntages. In 19361937 Atanasoff abandoned the Eccles-Jordan approach and conceived a system employing memory and logic circuits, whose details were worked out in 1938. He received a grant from Iowa State in 1939, and was joined by Clifford E. Berry. With Berry’s assistance a prototype computing element was built and operating by the autumn of that year. They then undertook the design and construction of a large machine intended for the solution of up to 30 simultaneous linear equations.At the heart of the machine there was a pair of rotating cylinders around the surface of which a set of small electrical condensers was placed. Each condenser could, by the direction of its charge, represent a binary digit; although the charge would leak away slowly, it was arranged that as the cylinders rotated the charge on each condenser was detected and reinforced at 1 second time intervals so that information could be stored for as long as required.The condensers were arranged so as to provi de two sets of 30 binary words, each consisting of 50 bits, the condensers corresponding to a single word being arranged in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinders. The results of intermediate steps of a computation were to be punched in binary form on cards, for later re-input to the machine. In order that card punching and reading should be fast enough to keep pace with the computation, special devices were designed that made and detected holes in cards by means of electrical sparks.Ordinary input and output was to be via conventional punched cards, with the machine providing automatic binary/decimal conversions. The machine, with binary addition, subtraction and shifting as its basic arithmetic facilities, was designed to solve sets of simultaneous linear equations by the method of successive elimination of unknowns. The electronic part of the computer was operational but the binary card reader was still unreliable when in 1942 Atanasoff and Bcrry left Iowa State for w artime jobs, so that the machine was abandoned, never having seen actual use.In the late 1930’s and early 1940’s several groups started to investigate the use of digital electronic circuits as replacements for mechanical or electro-mechanical calculating devices, including several of the American business machine manufacturers such as IBM, whose work was described briefly above. The earliest known efforts at applying electronics to a general-purpose program-controlled computer were those undertaken by Schreyer and Zuse, also mentioned earlier.The next development which should be mentioned is the still classified series of electronic cryptanalytic machines that were designed and built in Britain during the war. The machines that are of particular interest, with respect to the development of electronic computers are the Colossi, the first of which was operational in late 1943, while by the end of the war ten had been installed. Each Colossus incorporated approximately 20 00 valves, and processed a punched data tape that was read at a speed of 5000 characters per second.Preset patterns that were to be compared against the input data were generated from stored component patterns. These components were stored in ring registers made of thyratrons and could be manually set by plug-in pins. The Colossi were developed by a team led by M. H. A. Newman. Alan Turing, who had been one of the main people involved in the design of an electro-mechanical predecessor to the Colossi, was apparently not directly associated with the new design, but with others provided the requirements that the machines were to satisfy.The comparative lack of technical details about the design of these machines makes it unreasonable to attempt more than a preliminary, and somewhat hesitant, assessment of the Colossi with respect to the modern digital computer. It would appear that the arithmetical, as opposed to logical, capabilities were minimal, involving only counting rather than g eneral addition or other operations. They did, however, have a certain amount of electronic storage. Although fully automatic, even to the extent of producing printed output, they were very much special-purpose machines, but ithin their field of specialisation the facilities provided by plug-boards and banks of switches afforded a considerable degree of flexibility; in fact several of the people involved in the project have since characterised the machines as being â€Å"program-controlled. † Their importance as cryptanalytic machines, which must have been immense, can only be inferred from the number of machines that were made and the honours bestowed on various members of the team after the end of the war; however, their importance with respect to the development of computers was twofold.They demonstrated the practicality of largescale electronic digital equipment, just as ENIAC did, on an even grander scale, approximately 2 years later. Furthermore, they were also a major source of the designers of some of the first post-war British computers, namely the Manchester machine, the MOSAIC, and the ACE at the National Physical Laboratory. Fascinating though they are, none of the efforts described so far comes near to matching the importance of the work at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, which led to the design of first the ENIAC and then the EDVAC computers.By 1942 the Moore School had, because of pressures of war, become closely associated with the Ballistic Research Laboratory of the US Army Ordnance Department, and the Moore School’s differential analyser was being used to supplement the work of the one at the Ballistic Research Laboratory on the production of ballistic tables. (The two analysers were identical and had been patterned on the original differential analyser invented by Vannevar Bush in 1930. ) One of the people who had worked with the analyser was John Mauchly, then an assistant professor at the Moore School.Mauchly was by this time well aware of what could be done with desk calculating machines and punched card equipment, although he was apparently unaware of the work Aiken was then doing on what became the Harvard Mark I, or of Babbage’s efforts 100 years earlier. He did however know of the work of Stibitz and had visited Iowa State in June 1941 in order to see Atanasoff’s special-purpose computer. Another person who worked on the Moore School differential analyser, and in fact made important improvements to it by replacing its mechanical amplifiers by partially electronic devices, was J. Presper Eckert, a research associate at the School.Eckert had met Mauchly in 1941, and it was their discussions about the possibility of surmounting the reliability problems of complex electronic devices that laid the groundwork for a memorandum that Mauchly wrote in August 1942. This proposed that an electronic digital computer be constructed for the purpose of solving numerical difference equations of the sort encountered in ballistics problems. Also at the Moore School, acting as a liaison officer for Colonel Paul N. Gillon of the office of the Chief of Ordnance, was Herman H. Goldstine, who before the war had been assistant professor of mathematics at the University of Michigan.In early 1943 Goldstine and Gillon became interested in the possibility of using an electronic calculating machine for the preparation of firing and bombing tables. By this time Mauchly’s 1942 memorandum had been mislaid, and it had to be recreated from his secretary’s notes. The second version of the memorandum, together with more detailed plans drawn up by Mauchly and Eckert, was included in a report dated April 1943 which formed the basis for a contract between the University of Pennsylvania and the US Government to develop an electronic computer.A large team was assembled at the Moore School in order to design and build the computer under the supervisi on of J. G. Brainerd, with Eckert as chief engineer and Mauchly as principal consultant. As the project progressed its aims broadened, so that the ENIAC, as it became known, turned out to be much more a general-purpose device than had been originally contemplated, and although programs were represented by plugged interconnecting wires, it provided full conditional branching facilities.It was an incredibly ambitious machine incorporating over 19 000 valves and consuming approximately 200 kilowatts of electric power! (The number of valves largely resulted from the use of them for high speed storage, and the choice of number representation, which can best be described as â€Å"unary-coded decimal. â€Å") The ENIAC incorporated 20 10-digit accumulators, which could be used for addition and subtraction, and for the temporary storage of numbers, a multiplier and a combination divider and square rooter.Addition took 200 microseconds, and multiplication of two 10-digit numbers approximat ely 3 milliseconds. Storage was provided for approximately 300 numerical constants in function tables, which could be set up by manual switches prior to commencing a computation. Input and output was via punched cards, using standard IBM devices. Early in its career the method of programming the machine was modified so that the program was represented by settings of the function tables without the need for changing the interconnecting cables.